Sacred Smoke: Traditional Burning Practices for Purification, Protection, and Prayer

“We have kindled for you, O Agni, a perpetual flame that rises to heaven, bearing our offerings to the divine.”
(Rigveda 1.26.1)

Across cultures and centuries, the burning of herbs, woods, and resins has been considered a valued practice for cleansing, offering, and connecting with the divine. From the sage used by Indigenous North Americans to the incense of East Asia, these rituals reflect a longstanding respect for smoke as a medium for transformation and connection. This exploration of sacred smoke practices across the world reveals a shared legacy that bridges the physical and spiritual realms.

For many, the burning of these substances extends beyond ritual; it embodies gestures of respect, prayer, and intention that resonate across time and space. In some cultures, only designated individuals perform these rites, while in others, community members or spiritual practitioners gather plants with reverence, honouring their unique properties. Understanding these practices offers insight into the spiritual heritage embedded within each tradition.

North America: Sage, Cedar, Sweetgrass, and Tobacco in Indigenous Tribes

In North America, particularly among Plains and Southwest tribes, sage, cedar, sweetgrass, and tobacco hold significant roles in ceremonies for spiritual cleansing, protection, and honouring the natural world. Sage is often used to clear away negative energy and invite peace, while sweetgrass, called the “sacred hair of Mother Earth,” is burned in braids to express kindness and goodwill. In the Pacific Northwest, cedar is valued for its protective qualities, creating safe, sacred spaces in gatherings.

Tobacco, considered highly sacred, is central to many Indigenous cultures. In some traditions, only Pipe Carriers—individuals often born into or chosen for the role, as in Mi’kmaq tradition—lead ceremonial tobacco pipe rituals. The smoke from tobacco is seen as carrying prayers to the Creator. Many Indigenous communities follow specific protocols for gathering these plants, such as collecting sage during certain seasons or moon phases, which are thought to enhance its spiritual potency.

Africa: Wild Sage and Sacred Herbs Among the Maasai and Beyond

In African traditions, burning sage and other herbs holds spiritual significance, particularly among the Maasai of East Africa. Wild sage (ololien) is used during community gatherings and rites of passage to foster harmony and invite protection. This practice reflects a broader African tradition of honouring ancestral spirits and maintaining connections to unseen realms.

Other African communities, such as Bantu-speaking peoples, use herbs in ceremonies related to health and life transitions. In North Africa, Berber communities incorporate native plants into rituals, using smoke as a form of blessing that acknowledges respect for nature and spiritual forces. In some West African cultures, smoke rituals are accompanied by chants or storytelling, adding a layer of oral wisdom. Participants may wear ritual attire or beaded adornments to honour the ancestral connection during these practices.

South America: Palo Santo and Copal in Amazonian and Andean Traditions

In Amazonian and Andean regions, palo santo (holy wood) and copal resin are valued for their cleansing qualities. Palo santo, native to Peru and Ecuador, is often burned to purify spaces and prepare for spiritual engagement, while copal, deeply rooted in Mesoamerican traditions, is offered to gods and ancestors. The fragrant smoke is seen as a bridge to the divine, providing a sense of protection.

In some ceremonies, other sacred plants such as ayahuasca or tobacco are also included, whether burned or prepared for ingestion, showcasing the diversity of Amazonian traditions. Conservation efforts emphasise sustainable gathering of palo santo, aligning with the belief that only naturally fallen wood carries sacred energy.

Southeast Asia: Balinese Hindu Incense Offerings

In Bali, incense plays a central role in Hindu practices, especially in daily offerings known as canang sari, where flowers, rice, and incense are presented to honour deities. Each component of the canang sari holds symbolic meaning, embodying balance and unity. The smoke is regarded as carrying prayers and expressions of gratitude, fostering harmony between the physical and spiritual realms. These offerings are sometimes replenished multiple times a day, underscoring the ongoing connection with the divine.

East Asia: Incense in Chinese and Japanese Traditions

In China, incense is a mainstay in Taoist, Buddhist, and folk traditions. Incense sticks, typically crafted from sandalwood, agarwood, or Chinese cedar, are burned in temples and homes to honour ancestors, cleanse spaces, and invite blessings. The rising smoke is seen as a medium through which prayers reach higher realms, and festivals like Qingming emphasise ancestral offerings.

In Japan, incense is significant in both Shinto and Buddhist practices. Shinto shrines use incense to purify spaces and honour kami (spirits). In Buddhist temples, particularly in Zen and Tendai traditions, incense supports meditation, with the aromatic smoke representing mindfulness and life’s transient nature. The Japanese tea ceremony incorporates a practice called kodo or the “way of fragrance,” where specific incense is burned to foster a focused, contemplative state.

Ancient Greece: The Oracle of Delphi and Ritual Purification

In ancient Greece, the Oracle of Delphi was a respected site for guidance, where priestesses known as Pythia served as intermediaries. Ritual purification was integral to the process; both the priestesses and those seeking insight followed purification rites, which included bathing in the Castalian Spring and burning herbs such as bay laurel. Bay laurel, associated with Apollo, was believed to support a focused state suitable for receiving divine messages. These practices illustrate the Greeks’ view of purification as a preparation for communion with the divine.

The Mediterranean and Middle East: Frankincense, Myrrh, and Esfand

In ancient Mediterranean and Middle Eastern practices, aromatic resins like frankincense and myrrh were central to religious ceremonies. The Greeks, Egyptians, and other cultures used these resins to purify spaces, with the fragrant smoke symbolising prayers ascending to the heavens.

In Persian culture, esfand (Syrian rue) is burned to protect against the “evil eye” and harmful intentions. The smoke, accompanied by chants or verses, is thought to carry prayers for safety and well-being, blending practical and spiritual protection.

Indigenous Australian Practices: Smoking Ceremonies

In Indigenous Australian cultures, “smoking ceremonies” have long been practiced to purify people, spaces, and gatherings. Native plants are burned, and the smoke is gently wafted over individuals or spaces, believed to dispel negative energy and strengthen connections with the land and ancestral spirits. Different plants are chosen based on local significance—eucalyptus leaves are common in some areas, while native grasses or wattle leaves may be used in others. These ceremonies are especially important in welcoming people onto traditional lands.

Islamic Cultural Practices: Oud and Bukhoor in Middle Eastern Traditions

In Islamic culture, especially in the Middle East and North Africa, burning oud (agarwood) and bukhoor (incense chips) is valued beyond fragrance. Although not formal religious rites, these practices cultivate a respectful, mindful atmosphere suitable for prayer and reflection. In some Sufi practices, oud is burned during dhikr (remembrance of God), its scent thought to deepen focus. Some gatherings also include samaa (music and chanting), which, together with incense, can elevate the spiritual atmosphere.

Tibetan Buddhism and Himalayan Shamanic Traditions: Juniper and Cedar

In the Himalayas, Tibetan Buddhists and shamanic practitioners use juniper and cedar smoke to purify spaces and invite divine protection. Tibetan sang offerings, composed of specific herbs and woods, create an atmosphere that supports meditation and spiritual focus. Juniper, a hardy plant that thrives in high altitudes, is valued for resilience and clarity. The thokchoe purification rite often involves juniper to clear “spiritual dust” from the mind and surroundings.

Hindu Traditions: Camphor, Sandalwood, Ghee, and Aarti in Sacred Rituals

In Hinduism, camphor, sandalwood, and ghee (clarified butter) are commonly burned in havan or homam ceremonies, where the smoke is considered to carry prayers to the gods. Camphor’s ability to burn completely symbolises the dissolution of ego, aligning with values of selflessness in Hindu worship.

The ritual of Aarti, a form of puja, involves waving a flame before a deity as devotees sing praises. The flame and smoke are understood as offerings of light and purity, inviting the divine presence. Aarti is performed in temples and homes as an expression of reverence, gratitude, and devotion, with specific offerings and mantras often associated with different deities.

Judaism: Incense in Ancient Temple Practices

In Judaism, ketoret (incense) was central to ancient temple worship, burned on the altar as an offering to God, with ingredients specified in the Torah. The fragrant smoke represented the congregation’s prayers, establishing a sense of sacred connection. Only priests prepared ketoret in specific proportions, reflecting the ritual’s sanctity.

Ancient Egyptian Rituals: Kyphi and Frankincense

Ancient Egyptians developed kyphi, a complex incense blend, for temple offerings and personal use. Frankincense and myrrh, essential to their worship, were believed to purify spaces and facilitate divine communication. These substances, seen as sacred, were often burned at night to promote tranquillity and enhance lucid dreams.

Christianity: Frankincense and Myrrh in Worship

In Christianity, particularly within Catholic and Orthodox traditions, incense is understood as carrying prayers to God. Frankincense and myrrh are burned during services to purify the space and offer blessings. Censers, swung by priests during worship, create a visual symbol of the soul’s ascent, fostering a contemplative atmosphere.

Polynesia and Oceania: Ti Leaves and Manuka in Hawaiian and Maori Practices

Polynesian smoke rituals honour ancestors and purify spaces. Hawaiian ceremonies often use ti leaves and koa wood, while Maori practices incorporate manuka and kauri wood to connect people to land and lineage. In Hawaiian culture, ti leaves may also wrap sacred items, and manuka is used in blessings for new beginnings.

Baltic and Slavic Pagan Traditions: Juniper and Mugwort

In Baltic and Slavic pagan traditions, juniper and mugwort are burned for protection and spiritual clarity, especially during seasonal celebrations. Juniper smoke is thought to guard against illness, while mugwort is used to enhance dreams and insight. These practices reflect ancient beliefs in smoke as a protective force.

Zoroastrian Fire Temples: Sandalwood and Frankincense

In Zoroastrianism, fire symbolises purity and divine truth. Zoroastrian temples burn sandalwood and frankincense to honour this sacred element, with the smoke cleansing temple spaces and participants alike. Only certain woods are considered pure enough, and priests, known as mobeds, tend these fires as representations of divine presence.

Sacred Smoke in a Contemporary Context

Today, traditional plants like sage and palo santo have gained recognition across diverse cultures. Approaching these practices with respect for their origins acknowledges their role not only as tools for cleansing but as vessels for spiritual connection.

Across cultures, burning sacred plants holds significance beyond practicality. Whether it is a Maasai healer using wild sage, a Tibetan monk offering juniper, or a Japanese Buddhist burning sandalwood incense, each ritual reflects a respect for the interconnected nature of the physical and spiritual worlds.